Anarchism in the United States

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Anarchism has a long history in the United States, including periods where anarchism was a large movement and decades when anarchism was off the political map. Anarchism has enjoyed a resurgence since the 1990s and currently eclipses the radical left in numbers and influence.

1 Anarchist History
2 Contemporary Anarchism
- 2.1 Anarchism by State
- 2.2 References

[edit] Anarchist History

[edit] Precursors to Anarchism

Since Pierre Proudhon declared himself an anarchist, proponents of anarchism have claimed not to have invented anarchism but simply given a name to a tendency seen since the beginning of humankind. The principles of mutual aid, voluntary association, and self-organization have been articulated and lived out in countless forms before the word "anarchism" was coined. As post-colonial anarchist Roger White suggests, a "different way of understanding anarchism in relation to the centuries-old struggle against arbitrary power is to view it as the newest member of a global family that includes numerous historical and present day communal societies and struggles against authority" (White) such as that of various Native American tribes.

[edit] Anarchism and Native Americans

See Main Article: Anarchism and Native Americans

Examples of anarchism in action are evident in many of the various tribes and peoples indigenous to what is now known as the United States of America. The fight against hierarchy is not new to the area and in fact moving society forward to a world free of domination means in a very real sense looking back to examples of people organizing without political authority as well as communities still struggling to maintain those principles in the face of colonialism, domination and alienation from the natural world.

The number of tribes who organized without a government structure are numerous, though it should be noted that the absence of political or class stratification does not always result in the absence of all hierarchies, such as disparity in the freedom and power of genders or age. Of course, Native Americans are not a monolithic, universally same groupings of people but instead many distinct nations. The ways in which anarchy was realized and lived out varied from tribe to tribe. Some peoples were matrilineal with women taking very prominent and active roles in the decision-making process while others saw definite rights and privileges afforded only to men.

While certainly each tribe is unique, there are some general trends which can be commented on. The first is a general absence of formal authority. There were indeed many societies which had a Chief. This position, however, has been misunderstood by non-natives. As David Graeber explains, "the position [of chief] was so demanding, and so littlerewarding, so hedged about by safeguards, that therewas no way for power-hungry individuals to do much with it." (Graeber 23) Additionally, it was much more common for land and goods to be held in common rather than parcelled out to individuals. In some societies the capitalist notion of respect and prestige deriving from the amount one possesses is turned squarely on its head. In the case of Native Americans in the Northwest a person gained prestige by how much they gave, done in the form of the potlatch. The general relationship to nature was being a part of it rather than over it.

[edit] Anarchism and the English Colonies

The English Colonies and the revolution which followed carried many strong anarchist tendencies with it. Of course, the colonists also participated in the subjugation and exploitation of the Native peoples, blacks and women. This era of American history is thus a very contradictory one. Amongst English colonists one can see both a people who fled persecution and in response set up extremely democratic forms of organizing as well as unabashedly underpinnings of racism and colonialism. While the very destructive and hierarchical realities of Colonial America should not be overlooked, it is true that the colonists did provide examples of direct democracy and aspirations, albeit limited to a select few, of freedom that anarchists can learn from and take note of.

In order to preserve their rights of commercial extraction, or religious freedoms, the colonies were established with remarkably democratic governments for the time period, especially in New England. While few or no colonists actually advocated anarchy, the conditions of the colonies made their existence much more anarchistic than was possible in Europe. For many years, even after the establishment of the states, these conditions continued to permit extensive economic self-sufficiency and local decision making, which are central values of many forms of anarchism. This tradition contributed to the development of individualist anarchism.

Contact with the indigenous peoples of North America provided colonists with examples of a diverse set of societies that were all radically different from the societies in Europe. While many colonists dismissed the indigenous peoples as "savages," others looked to them for lessons about how societies could possibly be structured as well as identifying possible causes for problems in their own society. Some of these societies lacked concepts such as private property and had very flexible leadership. In the late 20th century these societies have served as models for primitivist anarchists. (see Anarchism and Native Americans).

New England Town Meetings

One very prominent form of direct democracy practiced by colonists was the town meeting. In the town meeting, citizens of the "town" would all come together to debate and form decisions collectively. The face to face meetings of simply citizens (though mostly men) gave people a close and personal connection to the institutions they were a part of. Rather than relying on a small group of specialized politicians, New Englanders employed the populist town model as well as confederated assemblies and citizens' militias to manage their affairs.

Various anarchists, particularly social ecologists such as Murray Bookchin have fashioned their anarchist visions in part on the town meeting model. The grassroots, popular nature of the meetings as well as its localized style has shown to be quite appealing as a decision making form for anarchists and anti-authoritarians.

[edit] Transcendentalism

In the 1836 figures such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau came to the forefront of American thought with their ideals of self-reliance, the Divine Soul within each individual and their utopian visions.

Emerson's oratory skills drew large crowds despite his sometimes very dense and difficult writings. Throughout his life he was a staunch abolitionist and went forward into radicalism as he aged. His increasing radicalism left him with fewer supporters but his strong individual streak left him unswayed in such principles.

Henry David Thoreau

In addition to his groundbreaking work around the individual, Emerson also contributed to radical thought through his companionship to Henry David Thoreau. Thoreau too was an abolitionist. Some of his most popular work was on his favorable writings of the radical abolitionist John Brown. Thoreau held a great disdain for political authority. One of the most famous acts of Thoreau was his refusal to pay taxes in protest of the US government's provocation of the Mexican-American war and slavery.

Thoreau's beliefs very much echoed the ideals of anarchism. His most famous quote in this regard is "That government is best which governs least." His ideas on individual sovereignty as well as his opposition to illegitimate authority certainly rings of anarchist belief. In fact, some have gone as far as to say Thoreau was an anarchist, the term just had not been around yet. He certainly inspired many radicals and anarchists including Edward Abbey and Emma Goldman, who called him "the greatest American anarchist."

[edit] Anarchism Reaches the United States

The term "anarchism" finally found its place as a serious political description and social movement in Europe with revolutionaries such as Pierre Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin. These ideas soon found their way to the United States in the 1870s with European immigrants. Soon an organized anarchist movement came to fruition, with places such as Chicago and New York serving as some of the hotbeds of radicalism in part because of their large immigrant populations.

The brand of anarchism coming out of Europe was largely socialist in nature with large emphasis on worker control and communalism, thus often referred to as anarcho-communism.

Another more "home-grown" anarchism developed in the United States. Drawing from the country's individualist tradition, people such as Josiah Warner and Benjamin Tucker advocated individualist anarchism. Like anarcho-communism, individualist anarchists rejected capitalism but placed more emphasis on the individual. They also advocated the existence of private property over collectivism. However, it should be noted that they were opposed to "usury," meaning that ownership of land or resources could not be used to gain a profit- such as leasing land with interest, renting to profit or own acreage without using it.

With the continual migration of workers into the United States and dismal working conditions in factories, anarcho-communism eventually came to be the more prominent of the two philosophies and a mass movement around anarcho-communist principles evolved.

[edit] Haymarket Affair

The new wave of anarchism brought on by the influx of immigrants lead to many intense labor struggles and the rise of militant union activity. One of the many labor struggles was the fight for the eight hour day. When the government refused to accept workers' demand for fair working hours a general strike was held on May 1st, 1886. The strike was widespread both in location and industry. In the end the government conceded and the victory marked the beginning of May Day, the International Labor Day.

Chicago was predictably the largest site of strike activity and it was from the turbulent events there that the government singled out seven anarchists as responsible for a bomb that was thrown into a crowd of police and protesters, killing several people. Despite the lack of evidence necessary to convict anyone, let alone the anarchists, five were sentenced death (one of which committed suicide before his execution) and the other to sentenced to life. The anarchists quickly became martyrs for the plight of the working class and the whole affair came to be known as the Haymarket Massacre.

[edit] Anarchism Grows

Haymarket thrust anarchism further into the limelight and in turn politicized many Americans, furthering the anarchist movement. Of those inspired by the Haymarket Martyrs was Emma Goldman, a fiery Russian immigrant. Her work as well as that of her lover Alexander Berkman and others propelled anarchist action forward in the country.

Along with the increased popularity of anarchism came the emergence of a strong syndicalist movement. In 1905 the Industrial Workers of the World was formed. Their emphasis on direct action and militant activity gained them the nickname Wobblies. The union attracted migrant workers in the mines and lumber yards of the West as well as in factories of the East and Midwest.

As anarchism became associated with the martyrdom of the Chicago anarchists, so too did the government characterize it as a movement of terrorists. This argument was legitimized in the eyes of many when Alexander Berkman attempted unsuccessfully to assassinate the financier Henry Clay Frick in revenge for the killing of workers during the Homestead steel strike. Soon after the young Polish immigrant, Leon Czolgosz assassinated President McKinley in 1901.

[edit] Repression of Anarchists and the Red Scare

The new president, Theodore Roosevelt delivered a speech to Congress in December 1901 denouncing anarchism as "a crime against the whole human race," and urged that "all mankind should band against anarchists." His message translated into law two years later with the passage of a law banning alien anarchists and any person "who disbelieves in or is opposed to all organized governments" (Marshall 500).

In addition to the legal repression of anarchism, many past sympathizers distanced themselves from the militant movement because of its association with violence. The anarchist movement only experienced more challenges for their opposition to World War I and the fear of communism which grew due to the Russian Revolution. In 1918 Congress expanded its power to exclude "subversive aliens" and in 1919 247 anarchists and socialists (including Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman were deported.

[edit] Post World War I

Catholic Worker

While anarchism suffered serious blows from mass deportation and vilification of its name, the movement continued on by others. The Catholic Ammon Hennacy became an anarchist pacifist during his prison time for opposing the "blood tax" during World War I. He went on to form the Catholic Worker with Dorothy Day.

Before the second World War Emma Goldman returned to the US. She and others started the Modern School movement, based of the principles of anarchist educator Francisco Ferrer.

During World War II a new generation picked up the anarchist cause in response to the increasing power of the state. On the East Coast intellectuals such as David Wieck and Paul Goodman published different anarchist journals while anarchists such as Kenneth Rexroth on the west formed the San Francisco Anarchist Circle, several of whom's members went on to achieve notoriety as part of the Beat Movement.

[edit] The New Left (1960s and 1970s)

Anarchists again found activity in a variety of political causes during the 60s and 70s such as the Civil Rights Movement and Students for a Democratic Society. They also helped shape feminism, which reflected anarchist principles of decentralization and non-hierarchy. Anarchism also found a home in the strong counter-culture and anti-establishment spirit of the times.

[edit] Social Ecology

It was also during the 50s and 60s that Murray Bookchin began writing on anarchism, particularly the Spanish Civil War. He helped further the anarchist perspective to include hierarchies in addition to the typical state and capital. One of the more prominent topics which Bookchin touched on was the domination of people over nature, which he claimed was born out of the domination of people over other people. This belief and others came together to form the new theory of social ecology. The concepts of social ecology both deepened anarchist theory as well as inspired a new generation of environmental activists, particularly the anti-nuke movement.

[edit] Anti-Nuke Movement (1970s and 1980s)

Bookchin's highlighting of the affinity group model used in revolutionary Spain became a key tactic in the anti-nuke movement which developed in the 1970s. In decentralized networks of these affinity groups, activists would use direct action, guerilla theater and other forms of non-violent resistance to protest and disrupt the nuclear energy industry. Many of the activists were anarchists and even more used anarchist principles to bring attention to the disastrous potential of nuclear energy.

Along with a strong anarchist influence, there were many anti-nuke activists who were driven by spiritual callings. One of the most prominent groups was the Quakers, a pacifist religious group also known for their aversion to hierarchy. It was from the Quaker tradition that the process of consensus was joined to the mix up affinity group work.

One of the largest anarchist movements, Food Not Bombs, also came out of the anti-nuke resistance. Their decentralized, autonomous nature and emphasis on consensus are still strong today and a strong reason for its strong participation by anarchists.

[edit] Global Justice Movement

On Novemeber 30, 1999 anarchists and other activists brought attention to a trend going largely unnoticed at the time- corporate globalization. This trend in economics manifested itself in the World Trade Organization's ministerial meeting. The Zapatistas had begun to raise peoples' consciences about the effects of globalization on the world in 1994 with their successful uprising. Many anarchists had gone to Chiapas to offer support and as a result came home with both tools and passion to confront this dangerous trend.

In Seattle, anarchists were instrumental in setting up the networks and making the preparations for what has come to be known as one of the most successful confrontations against those in power. Through a vast web of various forms of direct action protesters successfully disrupted and ultimately cancelled the WTO's meeting. The event sent shockwaves throughout the world, inspiring a movement of global proportions. Since what some have coined the Battle of Seattle, institutions such as the WTO, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and G8 have not been able to hold meetings without massive protest (unless they were held in countries with very little free speech such as Qatar).

[edit] Anarchist Movement

The anarchist movement in the US today is still involved in the global justice movement. Since 9-11 much work has also been done with the anti-war effort.

Anarchists are also involved in the environmental movement through groups such as the Earth Liberation Front, Earth First!, Biodevastation holding ideas views such as primitivism or anti-civilization beliefs to deep ecology to social ecology.

Anti-racism and anti-oppression work has also become more central to anarchist's work through groups such as Anarchist People of Color, the Catalyst Project and organizing around issues such as the prison industrial complex, immigrant rights, counter-recruitment and housing issues.

Anarcha-feminists and radical queer anarchists have done much for popular education around women's health, gender politics, glbtq rights and fighting patriarchy.

Labor and worker's rights are also still important issues and are being addressed by anarchists through labor organizing and worker solidarity through groups such as the IWW, NEFAC and WSA.

There are many other issues and facets to the anarchist movement of today. People can learn more by browsing this website as well as others. Getting in touch with your local anarchist community is possibly the best way to learn more. Go to the anarchist neighborhood to find local contacts.